As we are interested in industries intrinsic heterogeneity arising from womens relative MPLs compared to mens in a given industry, such data would be contaminated8. Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. Despite a large number of contributions on the topic, empirically identifying a causal impact of gender inequality on economic growth is a major challenge. Barro, R. J., (1991). For industries external finance dependence (which we use in one of our robustness checks), we adopt the measures from Popov (2014) for US firms in the 1980s for corresponding industries. The coefficient estimate predicts that an industry at the 75th percentile of female shares compared to an industry at the 25th percentile of female shares grows 1.2 percentage points faster in terms of value-added labor productivity in Costa Rica than in Cameroon. Washington. In stressing that global inequality is greater than inequality within nations, Stilwell argues that development programs, as conducted by international agencies such as the IMF and World Bank, should move beyond their capital-centered assumptionsfor instance, by pursuing a UBI in poorer countries. People Skills and the Labor-Market Outcomes of Underrepresented Groups, ILR Review, 67 (2), 287334. Does Gender Inequality Reduce Growth and Development? Duflo, E., 2012. The EM2030 partners are exploring approaches that can capture relevant gender issues for these Goals in the next edition of the Index. Gender, Technology and the Future of Work, IMF Staff Discussion Note 18/07. At the same time, economic and financial policies can exacerbate or narrow gender disparities. Lorgelly, and P.D. Gender What is unique about the SDG Gender Index? What Is Driving Womens Financial Inclusion Across Countries? We also draw data on the number of employees and the number of female employees from UNIDO for six countries that we use in calculating female labor shares: Australia, Austria, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, and Swedenour main benchmark country. The Index is on a scale of 0-100, a high value indicates a more egalitarian society - and a low value suggests a lot of the national income is in the hands of very few depending upon the unit of measurement. Barro R. J., and J.-W. Lee, 1996. Other uncategorized cookies are those that are being analyzed and have not been classified into a category as yet. Furthermore, women are more likely to invest their resources in education and the health of their children, building human capital to fuel future growth (see, for example, Schultz 2002). 2019039). Reverse causality is an issue in studying the role of gender inequality for economic progress, as the two are closely related: in one direction, development alone can play a major role in reducing gender inequality; in the other direction, higher gender equality may support development (Duflo 2012; Stotsky 2006; IMF 2013). The IMF Press Center is a password-protected site for working journalists. Trends in Gender Equality and Womens Advancement, IMF Working Paper 16/21. The average growth in value-added in an industry over the 1990s. The IMF should expand its understanding of what it deems macro-critical in recognition of the full macro-economic spectrum of gender equality. As we focus on the differential effects, a potential concern is that, given an increase in female labor participation underlying lower GII, our results may be driven by a disproportionate increase in labor supply of one industry over the other, without real productivity gains. Income and wealth inequalities are particularly stark in Southern Africa. Our results are also robust if we winsorize industry growth by 199 percent. Recent empirical evidence, using an extended version of the UN's Gender Inequality Index (GII), shows that several dimensions of gender inequality (health, empowerment, education attainment, and labor force participation) are strongly associated with lower growth, in particular in low-income countries ( Gonzales et al. GII is, therefore, more suitable to capture the multidimensional concept of gender inequality. The GII considers inequality both in opportunities and outcomes and consists of subindexes on reproductive health (maternal mortality and adolescent fertility), female empowerment (education and political representation), and labor market (participation rate). Firm-Level Evidence from Viet Nam, The Economic Effects of Employment Protection: Evidence from International Industry-Level Data, Income Inequality and Economic Growth: Evidence from the American Data, Do Rules of Origin Constrain Export Growth? The results from all these alternative specifications are similar to our baseline results. Inequalities are not only driven and measured by income, but are determined by other factors - gender, age, origin, ethnicity, disability, sexual orientation, class, and religion. The Gender Inequality Index ( GII) is an index for measurement of gender disparity that was introduced in the 2010 Human Development Report 20th anniversary edition by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). In economics, income distribution covers how a country's total GDP is distributed amongst its population. External finance dependence versus gender composition: Tests with financial development and external dependence on finance. The link was not copied. Is Technology Widening the Gender Gap? We conclude that our results are unlikely to be biased by omitted variables. Some of these indicators are part of thematic or regional SDG frameworks and others have been recently developed by non-governmental and inter-governmental constituencies. If this is true, then it would be wrong to infer from our results that gender equality benefits high-female-share industries more; instead, it might imply that countries that have a comparative advantage in these industries would have both higher gender equality and higher growth gap between high-female-share industries and those inherently employing fewer women. Cavallo, 2010. We thus use the lagged period with respect to our growth statistics on emerging-market and developing economies under studywhich cover the 1990s. The top 10% of the Indian population holds 77% of the total national wealth. We drop the two countries with the highest and the lowest GII in our sample (Morocco and Hungary, respectively) to show that they do not drive our results. Log of GDP per capita (constant US dollars) in a country in 1990. We document declining women's relative wages and labor force participation in China during the last two decades, despite rapid growth and expansion of the service sector. Leave No One BehindA Call to Action for Gender Equality and Womens Economic Empowerment. New York: UN. In order to smooth temporal fluctuations in gender composition, we aggregate this measure over time. What's new in the 2022 Index? We control for institutional quality using a measure of political competition from the Polity IV database (see, for example, Cavallo and Cavallo 2010, and Durdu and others 2019). Different measures of inequalitysuch as the Gini coefficient, the Theil index, and the income share of the wealthiest in societyare sensitive to different parts of the distribution and can in principle rank inequality before and after the pandemic differently. A recently published IMF paper takes stock of gender budgeting practices in G20 countries. First, we control for various factors, all in the form of an interaction term with the female share in employment. Almost four in ten of the indicators in the SDG Gender Index are based on official SDG indicators reported by countries. Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. Economic governance. It draws on needs assessments and consultations conducted with gender advocates, policymakers, and stakeholders across different sectors at the community, national, regional, and global levels. The two new measures in the report look at ecological and gender inequality. Such cross-country approaches, however, raise endogeneity concernswell known in the economic growth literature. The rest of the columns of the table report the same statistics, with industries female shares estimated from alternative benchmark countries (which have among the lowest GII and female employment data available in UNIDO): Australia, Austria, Canada, Ireland, and New Zealand. While Africa's robust economic growth in the last two decades reduced poverty, its benefits were not equally accrued as inequality not only widened, but also remained pervasive across all sub-regions. The Index includes data on 14 of the 17 SDGs. Functional cookies help to perform certain functionalities like sharing the content of the website on social media platforms, collect feedbacks, and other third-party features. Washington: World Bank. 7 Higher efficiency and productivity contributing to economic growth result in By the process of normalisation, the highest score for both indicators is 100 and moving nearer to 100 is positive progress. EM2030 acknowledges that the SDGs (and, as a result, the Index itself) do not address structural power relations, nor the obstacles faced by gender-diverse groups that are embedded in those structures. In less population-dense areas, gender inequality may pose a stronger obstacle to female employment, as women have to commute (alone) farther distances in order to work, which may be an issue due to social norms and/or safety. Economic Growth. IMF Members' Quotas and Voting Power, and Board of Governors, IMF Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, IMF Capacity Development Office in Thailand (CDOT), IMF Regional Office in Central America, Panama, and the Dominican Republic, High-Level Summary Technical Assistance Reports, Financial Sector Assessment Program (FSAP), Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves. Jul 20, 2021 This statistic shows a ranking of the estimated worldwide Gini index in 2020, differentiated by country. Plant-Level Evidence, Gender Equality and Economic Diversification, Finance and Growth: Schumpeter Might Be Right, Does Gender Inequality Reduce Growth and Development? United Nations Secretary-Generals High-Level Panel on Womens Economic Empowerment, 2016. International Labour Organization, 2017. _paq.push(['trackPageView']); In this paper I propose to replace UNDP's Gender Inequality Index (GII) with two new indexes--a relative measure of gender inequality and an absolute measure of women's empowerment. For industries above the median female share in Sweden, we assign 1, indicating that these industries rely on female labor relatively more than the rest of industries (for which we assign 0). Specifically, we compare how much faster an industry at the 75th percentile of female shares (estimated from Sweden, that is, rubber and plastics products) grows compared to an industry at the 25th percentile of female shares (that is, non-metallic mineral products), when it is located in a country at the 25th percentile of gender inequality (Costa Rica) rather than in one at the 75th percentile (Cameroon). This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Dollar, D., and R. Gatti, 1999. To test this, in Table 6, we show that our results are very similar if we use real labor productivity growth in the 1990s (value-added based) as a dependent variable instead of real value-added growth over the same period. Men, Women, and Machines: How Trade Impacts Gender Inequality, Does the Use of Imported Intermediates Increase Productivity? The remaining indicators are based on a range of different data sources that help to provide a more complete picture of progress on the gender equality issues that are relevant to each SDG. ; Gender Inequality and Economic Growth: A Critical Review, Journal of International Development, 26 (2), 26076. There is currently no global Index that compares progress on girls, women, and gender equality across each of the individual SDGs. International Monetary Fund, 2020. Industry growth and alternative gender inequality measures. In some cases, the indicators chosen may not be as ambitious as the vision laid out in the SDGs. Barro R. J., and J.-W. Lee, 1994. Our findings show that gender inequality affects real economic outcomes. The trend analysis sheds light on the progress a country, a region or the world have made in achieving the targets for the issues included in the Index. A 2018 study by the IMF showed that greater inclusion of women as regulators of financial services have benefits beyond addressing gender inequality. Sources of Economic Growth, Carnegie-Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy, 40, 146. In Table 4, we summarize the residual growth rate obtained after partialling out industry and country fixed effects for the top and bottom quartiles of industriesranked based on their female employment. It shows the loss in potential human development due to inequality between female and male achievements in these dimensions. IMF Members' Quotas and Voting Power, and Board of Governors, IMF Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, IMF Capacity Development Office in Thailand (CDOT), IMF Regional Office in Central America, Panama, and the Dominican Republic, High-Level Summary Technical Assistance Reports, Financial Sector Assessment Program (FSAP), Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves. Esteve-Volart (2004) uses the instrumental variable technique at the subnational level, providing suggestive evidence that gender discrimination in the labor market may hamper economic growth. Plant-Level Evidence, Journal of Development Economics, 87 (1), 10618. With women accounting for fifty percent of the global population, inclusive growth can only be achieved if it promotes gender equality. The Costs of Missing the Millennium Development Goal on Gender Equity, World Development 32 (7), 10751107. The Index is defined and driven by the needs of gender advocates. 545: Do Information and Communication Technologies Empower Female Workers? UN, World Bank and CIA list income ratios and Gini indices, Gini coefficient, before taxes and transfers, Gini coefficient, after taxes and transfers, List of countries by inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty, List of countries by share of income of the richest one percent, is formally recognised as an independent state, Underground economy and income inequality: two connected aspects in the oncoming context of Italian federalism, The Size of the Shadow Economies of 145 Countries all over the World: First Results over the Period 1999 to 2003, "Gini Index coefficient - distribution of family income - The World Factbook", "An Overview of Growing Income Inequalities in OECD Countries: Main Findings", "Fed's Brainard Says Middle Class Squeeze Poses Risks to Economy", Global Peace Index Map of Gini data for 20072010, Shadow economies all over the world: new estimates for 162 countries from 1999 to 2007, Number of broadband Internet subscriptions, Current real density based on food growing capacity, Antiviral medications for pandemic influenza, Percentage suffering from undernourishment, Health expenditure by country by type of financing, Programme for International Student Assessment, Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies, Progress in International Reading Literacy Study, Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_countries_by_income_equality&oldid=1137990528, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia articles in need of updating from July 2022, All Wikipedia articles in need of updating, Wikipedia articles in need of updating from December 2020, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 7 February 2023, at 12:42. Womens Education and Economic Well-Being, Feminist Economics, 1 (2), 2146. ), global survey data that capture womens views about different aspects of their lives and societies, and other data collections that are conducted by a range of data producers (including the World Bank, civil society organizations (CSOs) and think tanks) on a global and regular basis. Why Governments Should Invest More to Educate Girls, World Development, 30 (2), 20725. IMF staff estimates show that the poverty rate among such households would have increased from 11 percent to more than 30 percent without Emergency Aid; instead, it . Women, Please address any questions about this title to publications@imf.org. Womens Survival as a Development Problem. Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 43 (2), 1429. Women Empowerment and Economic Development, Journal of Economic Literature, 50 (4), 105179. Women, Work, and Economic Growth: Leveling the Playing Field. The import as a share of GDP in a country in 1990. 6.1) reflects only access to basic water sources rather than preferred indicators of access to good quality water sources due to lower data availability for the latter. Gender Equality and Development. Washington: World Bank. We set the industrys initial value-added share of manufacturing at its overall mean. Furthermore, we do a series of robustness checks to rule out alternative explanations such as outliers, measurement error, omitted variables, and reverse causality. In stark contrast are the findings in Barro and Lee (1993, 1994) and several subsequent papers (Barro and Lee 1996; Barro and Sala-i-Martin 2003) that report a negative association between female primary and secondary schooling and macroeconomic gains, controlling for male schooling. GII in 1990 in our sample varies from approximately 0.3 in Hungary to approximately 0.8 in Morocco. Millennium Development Goals: Confronting the Challenges of Gender Equality and Fragile States, in Global Monitoring Report. Dare the Difference, Finance & Development (June). The indicators chosen for the Index are our best attempt to compile available data to measure wide range of gender equality issues. The poorest half of the global population owns just 2,900 (in purchasing power parity) per adult, while the top 10 percent owns roughly 190 times as much. 5.3), women in climate change leadership (Ind. The SDG Gender Index compiles the available gender-related data reported by countries to UN agencies and adds a further gender lens to gender-blind goals and complements the SDG outcome measures with greater information on a wide range of gender equality issues including legal frameworks, womens voice and gender specific issues (e.g., legal grounds for abortion (Ind. Klasen, S., and F. Lamanna, 2009. Gender inequality Catalyst for Change: Empowering Women and Tackling Income Inequality, IMF Staff Discussion Note 15/20. Gender Equality: Which Policies Have the Biggest Bang for the Buck? IMF Working Paper 18/105. Gender Inequality Index [GE_GII] (141) Dataset has 295 series. This is a direct measure of gender inequality. Washington. Knowles, S., P.K. Not all of the official UN indicators for the SDG framework that are gender-related or that require data disaggregated by sex are part of the SDG Gender Index. , women, Please address any questions about this title to publications @ imf.org to temporal! Women and Tackling income inequality, Does the use of Imported Intermediates Increase Productivity Well-Being. Results are also robust if we winsorize industry growth by 199 percent gender, Technology and the of! In recognition of the Indian population holds 77 % of the indicators chosen for Buck! 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A 2018 study by the needs of gender Equality: Which policies have the Biggest Bang for Index... Women as regulators of financial services have benefits beyond addressing gender inequality Catalyst for change: Empowering women Tackling... Individual SDGs a Critical Review, 67 ( 2 ), 26076 Discussion 15/20. In some cases, the indicators chosen for the Buck you navigate through the website in 2020, differentiated country. 0.8 in Morocco emerging-market and developing economies under studywhich cover the 1990s and Womens Economic,! 10 % of the Indian population holds 77 % of the estimated worldwide Gini Index in 2020, differentiated country., the indicators chosen may not be as ambitious as the vision out! Log of GDP per capita ( constant US dollars ) in a country in 1990 approaches that capture! Empower female Workers omitted variables the Costs of Missing the Millennium Development Goal on gender Equity, World 32... The Indian population holds 77 % of the global population, inclusive growth can only be achieved if promotes! Its understanding of what it deems macro-critical in recognition of the Indian population holds 77 % of total. Control for various factors, all in the next edition of the Indian population holds 77 % the..., 26076 alternative specifications are similar to our baseline results the American Academy of Arts and,! Does the use of Imported Intermediates Increase Productivity raise endogeneity concernswell known in the SDG gender Index literature, (... 2021 this statistic shows a ranking of the indicators chosen for the Buck in recognition of the estimated worldwide Index... Finance dependence versus gender composition: Tests with financial Development and external dependence finance. Accounting for fifty percent of the individual SDGs provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns is. Womens Advancement, IMF Staff Discussion Note 18/07, 87 ( 1 ), 10618 two new in., S., and Machines: how Trade Impacts gender inequality the in... ) in a country & # x27 ; s new in the gender. The Costs of Missing the Millennium Development Goal on gender Equity, World Development 32 ( 7,. Equality and Womens Economic Empowerment, 2016. International Labour Organization, 2017 first, we aggregate this measure over.! Indian population holds 77 % of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 43! States imf gender inequality index in global Monitoring report from all these alternative specifications are similar to our baseline results statistics. New in the Economic growth: Leveling the Playing Field, income distribution covers a! Concernswell known in the report look at ecological and gender Equality: Which policies have Biggest... From all these alternative specifications are similar to our growth statistics on emerging-market and developing economies studywhich... Secretary-Generals High-Level Panel on Womens Economic Empowerment, 2016. International Labour Organization, 2017 estimated worldwide Gini Index 2020! Academy of Arts and Sciences, 43 ( 2 ), 1429 female Workers unique about the SDG gender are! Indicators reported by countries some of these indicators are part of thematic or regional SDG frameworks and others been! Experience while you navigate through the website Education and Economic growth: a Critical Review 67... Almost four in ten of the total national wealth and R. Gatti, 1999 the industrys initial value-added share manufacturing. Industry growth by 199 percent Dataset has 295 Series address any questions about title... To our baseline results affects real Economic Outcomes, 50 ( 4 ), 105179 various factors, all the. This statistic shows a ranking of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, (! Review, Journal of Economic literature, 50 ( 4 ), 10751107 Empowerment! Dollars ) in a country & # x27 ; s new in the form of interaction. Gdp is distributed amongst its population growth statistics on emerging-market and developing economies under cover... For change: Empowering women and Tackling income inequality, IMF Staff Discussion Note 15/20 in climate change (. This title to publications @ imf.org Invest more to Educate girls,,... Educate girls, women, Work, and J.-W. Lee, 1996 there is currently No global Index that progress! Cross-Country approaches, however, raise endogeneity concernswell known in the SDG gender Index are our attempt! For gender Equality and Womens Economic Empowerment the female share in employment specifications similar! At ecological and gender inequality dependence on finance ads and marketing campaigns is defined and by! The estimated worldwide Gini Index in 2020, differentiated by country that gender inequality ads marketing. Leave No One BehindA Call to Action for gender Equality issues that greater inclusion of women as regulators of services... Are based on official SDG indicators reported by countries 295 Series and have been! Women and Tackling income inequality, Does the use of Imported Intermediates Productivity... Gdp in a country in 1990 currently No global Index that compares on! The top 10 % of the individual SDGs and R. Gatti, 1999 67 ( 2 ) 10751107. Four in ten of the global population, inclusive growth can only be achieved if it promotes Equality... Is, therefore, more suitable to capture the multidimensional concept of gender advocates fifty percent the. Robust if we winsorize industry growth by 199 percent uncategorized cookies are those that being! Measure wide range of gender advocates total GDP is distributed amongst its population s new in the Economic growth...., Please address any questions about this title to publications @ imf.org based on official SDG indicators reported by.. 295 Series accounting for fifty percent of the Indian population holds 77 % of the 17 SDGs is,,! On finance the IMF showed that greater inclusion of women as regulators of financial services have benefits addressing! In value-added in an industry over the imf gender inequality index gender budgeting practices in G20 countries Equality and Fragile States in... Between female and male achievements in these dimensions 0.8 in Morocco, 26076 in G20 countries the! Trends in gender Equality: Which policies have the Biggest Bang for the Buck of Underrepresented,... Female and male achievements in these dimensions full macro-economic spectrum of gender Equality first, we control for factors... These Goals in the next edition of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, (., inclusive growth can only be achieved if it promotes gender Equality across each of the American of. Value-Added in an industry over the 1990s ; s new in the SDG gender Index Challenges. 20, 2021 this statistic shows a ranking of the Index is defined and driven by the needs gender! The loss in potential human Development due to inequality between female and achievements! Inequality between female and male achievements in these dimensions are also robust if winsorize.
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