2015. International green construction code (IgCC). ASHRAE Transactions 117:459-471. The ETNA BESTEST empirical validation data set. Adaptive methods for real-time forecasting of building electricity demand. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 121:47. Kavanaugh, S., and S. Lambert. Hence, model coefficients tend to be more robust, leading to sounder model predictions. The RADIANCE lighting simulation and rendering system. Measured versus predicted performance of the SERI test house: A validation study. Solar Engineering, Proceedings of the ASME Solar Division. Collectively, the three kinds of tests form a more robust and complete structure than any could create individually or any two could create without the third. In general, I don't recommend using the building are method - the space by space method is a better approach. In commercial buildings, internally generated loads, such as the heat given off by people, lights, and electrical equipment, also affect heating and cooling energy use. Solar Energy Research Institute (now National Renewable Energy Laboratory), Golden, CO. Judkoff, R., D. Wortman, B. ODoherty, and J. Burch. Estimation of energy savings for building retrofits using neural networks. al (1991) also presented an improvement for correlating the solar gains to the temperature bins. 1991. LeRoy, J., E. Groll, and J. Braun. Englander, S.L., and L.K. Fisher, R.J. Liesen, and R.K. Strand. Transactions of the Illuminating Engineering Society. Example values of weighting factors for typical building rooms are presented in the following table. This is because the range of disagreement among the results that comprise the secondary truth standard is typically much narrower than the range of disagreement among whole-building simulations. Infiltration is defined as the flow of outdoor air via (1) leakage through unintentional openings (e.g., cracks, porosities) in the building envelope and (2) natural ventilation through exterior windows, doors, vents, etc. Individual parameters with varying degrees of uncertainty can be analyzed to predict the range of values for that parameter, and its most likely value. Arasteh, D., C. Kohler, and B. Griffith. 2003. Regression is still required to obtain values for unknown physical parameters. Solar Energy Research Institute (now National Renewable Energy Laboratory), Golden, CO. Judkoff, R., and J. Neymark. 1998; Krarti et al. Applications Manual AM10, Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, London. Availability of weather data and a weather data processing subroutine or program are major features of a program. Buhl, Y. Joe Huang, C.O. The simulation is based on system characteristics and zone design requirements. ASHRAE Transactions 86(1):49-72. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD. ASHRAE Transactions 112(1):226-240. 2003. A calibration method reconciles model predictions with the data, and then the calibrated model is used to predict energy savings and energy cost savings from various combinations of retrofit measures. For pumps, these contributions are typically assumed to be zero because the motor is not mounted in the water stream, and the ratio of transport power to thermal capacitance rate is usually much less for water than for air. Neymark, J., R. Judkoff, D. Alexander, C. Felsmann, P. Strachan, and A. Wijsman, A. Bhandari, M.S., S.S. Shrestha, and J.R. New. In addition, there are uncertainties and variability in known model input parameters, and uncertainties in the model itself. The functional basis of steady-state thermal energy use in air-side HVAC equipment. www.resnet.us/professional/programs. 1985. 2016c.Origins of analysis methods used to design high performance commercial buildings: Daylighting simulation. Hong, T., H. Sun, Y. Chen, S. Taylor-Lange, D. Yan. Jensen, S., and R. van de Perre. Caron. Maxwell, G., P. Loutzenhiser, and C. Klaassen. The ASHRAE 209 outlines a system of energy modeling activities that must be carried out through the designing process. Bowman, N., and K. Lomas. The method follows the light rays in an enclosure and takes into account all the characteristics of various surface geometries and surface reflectances. Theoretical foundations of computer graphics and CAD. Draper, N., and H. Smith. The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 4.7, Energy Calculations. ASHRAE Research Project RP-666, Final Report. 2015a. 1954. This may be determined by recasting Equation (27) of Chapter 18 so that the system heat transfer is determined simultaneously with the zone air temperature. To divide the daytime and nighttime, degree-hours must be used instead of degree-days. High-resolution thermal modeling for computational building design assistance. International Code Council, Washington, D.C. Irving, A. Those degree-hours occurring in the ventilation section when the outdoor temperatures are below the thermostat set point are not added to the running total of cooling degree-hours. 2008. International Energy Agency Building Energy Simulation Test and Diagnostic Method (IEA BESTEST) in-depth diagnostic cases for ground coupled heat transfer related to slab-on-grade construction. HVAC component model libraries for equation-based solvers. Home Energy Rating System Building Energy Simulation Test (HERS BESTEST), vols. Tree. A discussion of the Gordon-Ng model is provided in the Data-Driven Modeling section, presented as an example of a physical model. CIBSE. This often creates a need for iteration or for use of values from an earlier solution point. Backward ray tracing. Modeler report for BESTEST cases GC10a-GC80c, MATLAB 7.0.4.365 (R14) service pack 2. Polidoro. 1970. The effectiveness and UA can be calculated from the given heat transfer rate and entering fluid conditions. Claridge, and C. Culp. Final Report of the BRE/SERC Collaboration. CFD models represent the most complex class of airflow models and can be valuable for simulating natural ventilation, including the effects of wind on the building envelope pressures and internal airflow patterns that develop as a result of various boundary conditions and representative portions of the building interior. 2005; Subbarao 1988). Andrews, C.J., D. Yi, U. Krogmann, J.A. A critical review of observation studies, modeling, and simulation of adaptive occupant behaviors in offices. Several recent studies have considered different approaches for thermal zoning: Raftery (2011) developed a method that defines the various type of thermal zones in a simulation based on four major criteria: (1) function of the space, (2) position of the zone relative to the exterior, (3) available measured data, and (4) method used to condition the zone. Aalborg, Denmark: Aalborg University. International Building Performance Simulation Association. Predictive and diagnostic aspects of a universal thermodynamic model for chillers. ASHRAE Research Project RP-1051, Final Report. Krarti, M., and P. Chuangchid. Various solution techniques have been used in conjunction with thermal-network models. 2015, 2016b). ASHRAE Transactions 103(1):949-958. For those cases, the portion of the total heat gain entering the space as latent heat must be identified. Infiltration investigation of a radiantly heated and cooled office. Piette, Y. Chen, S.H. Energy and Buildings 34:951-958. Inverse model toolkit (RP-1050): Application and testing. U.S. Department of Energy commercial reference building models of the national building stock. In particular, using airflow network characteristics (e.g., airflow resistances) and climate data (along with assumed temperatures within the building), network airflow models calculate combined buoyancy- and wind-driven pressures and the rate and direction of airflows for all openings in the model. Dols, W.S., S.J. 2011. 1985. 1985. Chapter 9. For energy simulation models, calibration typically involves observation of changes in simulation output as simulation inputs are modified, with the goal of identifying a set of inputs leading to simulation outputs that match measured building performance. The Z-transform is a method for solving differential equations with discrete data. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on System Simulation in Buildings, pp. 2001. Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research; Iowa Energy Center. Turner, C., and M. Frankel. Andrews, J.W. The effectiveness model is based on the observation that, for a given set of entering air and liquid conditions, the heat and mass transfer are bounded by thermodynamic maximum values. Use of BESTEST procedure to improve a building thermal simulation program. New experimental validation and model improvement tools for the CLIM2000 energy simulation software program. Table 4 shows some commonly used model functional forms. Strand and Pedersen (1997) describe implementation of heat source conduction transfer functions that may be used for modeling radiant panels within a heat balance-based building simulation program. Although there are some limitations (e.g., coverage of building and system types) to the current implementation, the pattern-based automated calibration methodology can be universally adopted as an alternative to manual or hierarchical calibration approaches. Fisher, R.J. Liesen, and R.K. Strand. Claridge, W.D. COMNET enhances productivity and quality by developing consensus guidelines and quality standards for building energy modeling and providing detailed specifications for energy analysis software. (1998), Kreider and Wang (1991), and Wang and Kreider (1992) report additional case studies for commercial buildings. There are essentially four different types of model formulations: thermal network, time series, differential equation, and modal, all of which qualify as parameter-estimation approaches. The exception to this is simulating energy exchange with the ground. Oklahoma State University School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Stillwater. Emmerich, and G.N. One important application is model-predictive control. 1990. b Anticipated as Addendum a to Standard 140-2014 in 2017. Proceedings of the CIBSE 5th International Symposium on the Use of Computers for Environmental Engineering Related to Buildings, Bath, U.K. CEN. Optimal supervisory control of cooling plants without storage. Journal of Building Performance Simulation 9(2):176-189. Solar Energy Research Institute (now National Renewable Energy Laboratory), Golden, CO. Palomo, E., and G. Guyon. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Beckman, and J.W. 1990. See also Achermann and Zweifel (2003), Judkoff et al. Buhl, W.F., A.E. ASHRAE Research Project RP-865, Final Report. 1. www.energydesignresources.com/resources/publications/design-guidelines/design-guidelines-hvac-simulation-guidelines.aspx. The VAV terminal unit at each zone varies airflow to meet the cooling load. 2006), and under joint IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme/Energy Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems Task 34/Annex 43 (Judkoff and Neymark 2009); these may further populate the validation test matrix in the future. The ASHRAE 209 is a new process standard that helps users to build an optimal way to apply building energy modeling processes. Strictly speaking, performance calculations for a buildings fan and air distribution system require a detailed pressure balance on the entire network. Here, the term analytical solution is the closed-form mathematical solution of a model that has an exact result for a given set of parameters and simplifying assumptions. 1981. 1980. Yazdanian, M., and J. Klems. ASHRAE Standard 140 is the framework for establishing this confidence in energy modeling engines andcollectivelyin the energy modeling enterprise. Heat transfer in naturally ventilated rooms: Data from full-scale measurements. Compact heat exchangers, 3rd ed. I. U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C. U.S. Department of Energy. A review of ventilation opening area terminology. 1997. 2013. Wong. Modeler report for BESTEST cases GC10a-GC80c, FLUENT version 6.0.20. For example, based on the functional form of the DOE-2 building simulation software (York and Cappiello 1982), models for part-load performance of energy equipment and plant, Ecomp, can be modeled as the following triquadratic polynomial: In this model, there are 11 model parameters to identify. Building Service Engineering Research and Technology 6(4):153-162. Expert knowledge/templates/model database, Expert knowledge or judgment as a key element of the process, Prior definition of typical building templates, Database of typical building parameters and components to reduce the requirement for user inputs during model development. Maddox. Building Research Establishment, Garston, U.K. TRACE 700 version information. 2013. Armstrong, and L.K. For best accuracy, models that account for load and entering water temperature are preferred. Arbitrary alteration of a model solely for the purpose of better matching a given data set is not allowed. Development of equipment seasonal performance models for simplified energy analysis methods. The number of hidden neurons and layers must be sufficient to meet the requirement of the given application. This model (Matthieu 2011) may be applied to daily, hourly, or subhourly data. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 117:31-39. 2002. A procedure for the performance evaluation of a new commercial building: Part IIOverall methodology and comparison of methods. ASHRAE Transactions 99(2). Some design elements do not necessarily require an energy model for evaluation, and a reasonably accurate savings estimate may be possible using other methods. Beckman. Principles of hybrid ventilation. ASHRAE Transactions 74(2):182-188. Goldstein, K., and A. Novoselac. Twenty years on! 2005. energy.gov/savings/energy-efficient-new-homes-tax-credit-home-builders. 2016. In most implementations, the solution procedure is separated from the models so that, in theory, different solvers might be used to perform the simulation. The data-driven approach is relevant only when the system has already been built and actual performance data are available for model development, calibration, and/or identification. Lobenstein, M.S. This section provides information about calculation methods suitable for energy estimates over time periods of arbitrary length. Englander, S.L., and L.K. However, generic values for model parameters are provided in the EnergyPlus documentation. Subbarao, K. 1986. ASHRAE research project RP-1093 developed different sets of diversity factors appropriate for energy calculations and for load calculations (Abushakra et al. Additional tests not yet in Standard 140 were developed under ASHRAE research projects (Spitler et al. Unlike in single-family residences, it is difficult to perform elaborately planned experiments in large buildings and obtain representative values of indoor fluctuations. Bland, B. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO. de Wit, S., and G. Augenbroe. 1984. When selecting an energy-estimating program, it is important to note that not all programs explicitly represent some of these types of terminal units or they may not directly represent the desired control scheme. Weber, and O. Guisan. Because NMBE is a signed error divided by the mean, it indicates bias percent for under- (NMBE > 0) or overshooting (NMBE < 0) the actual data during the period of evaluation. 2014). The method was originally developed to create high-quality computer graphics in complex scenes (Baker et al. 1982. Proposed changes to ASHRAE Standard 90.1, Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings, are developed as addenda to the current edition of the standard. Reddy, T.A., S. Katipamula, J.K. Kissock, and D.E. Proceedings of the SimBuild 2004 Conference, Boulder, CO. International Building Performance Simulation Association. Krarti, M., D.E. Thermal analysis research program reference manual. Proceedings: Indoor Air (2002), Monterey, CA. Judkoff, R., and J. Neymark. Chilled-water temperature limits for chilled-beam systems. Wray. Simulation study of coupled energy saving systems included in real site building. Applications for the hybrid inverse change point model include detailed audits, green-building performance verification, and verification of post-retrofit claims using pre/post monitored data. This VAV system simulation consists of a central air-handling unit and a VAV terminal unit with reheat coil located at each zone, as shown in Figure 11.The central air-handling unit includes a fan, cooling coil, preheat coil, and outdoor air economizer. Does it matter? 1987. Haberl. Building Energy Simulation Test For Existing Homes (BESTEST-EX): Instructions for implementing the test procedure, calibration test reference results, and example acceptance-range criteria. Some modeling tools or combinations of tools enable transient simulations to be performed with user-defined control algorithms (e.g., DOE 2015; Dols et al. 1985. Cambridge, MA. Building and Environment 70:31-47. Wray. 1993. 2003. The internal longwave radiation exchange in thermal models, vol. Judkoff, R., B. Polly, M. Bianchi, J. Neymark, and M. Kennedy. Chapter 6. User-driven automation for optimal thermal-zone layout during space programming phases. Values of these parameters are identified, or tuned, based on regression fits of overall performance compared to measured or published data. Empirical validation (test of model and solution process), Approximate truth standard within experimental accuracy, Instrument calibration, spatial/temporal discretization, Instrumentation can alter the effect being measured, Imperfect knowledge/specification of experimental object (building) being simulated, High-quality, detailed measurements are expensive and time consuming, Only a limited number of test cases are practical, Requires empirical determination of inputs, Only a limited number of sensitivity test cases are practical, Analytical verification (test of solution process), Exact mathematical or secondary mathematical truth standard for given model, Limited to highly constrained cases for which analytical or quasi-analytical solutions can be developed*, Comparative testing (relative test of model and solution process), No absolute truth standard (only statistically based acceptance ranges are possible). The goal of modeling energy use by the multivariate approach is to characterize building energy use with a few readily available and reliable input variables. Development of a heat balance procedure for calculating cooling loads. Deb, K., A. Pratap, S. Agarwal, and T. Meyarivan. Predicting annual energy use in buildings using short-term monitoring and utility bills: The hybrid inverse model using daily data (HIM-D). Conduction tests for the validation of dynamic thermal models of buildings. A comparative study of uncertainty propagation methods for black-box-type problems. In its simplest form, the 18.3C degree-day model is a change-point model that has a fixed change point at 18.3C. Corgnati. Department of Mathematical Physics, University of Lund, Sweden. Energy signature model for commercial buildings: Test with measured data and interpretation. Two assumptions are made in the weighting-factor method. Axley, J.W., S.J. For chillers, both capacity and power are affected by condenser and evaporator temperatures, which are often characterized in terms of their secondary fluids. Hong et al. . Hybrid ventilation can be loosely divided into three categories: fully parallel natural and mechanical ventilation, fan-assisted natural ventilation, and stack- and wind-assisted mechanical ventilation (Hybrid Ventilation Centre 2002). American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, New York. Nishitani, Y., M. Zheng, H. Niwa, and N. Nakahara. Apply the specified retrofit to the uncirculated base case model and then calibrate or correct energy savings predictions using the synthetic utility bills (without adjustment to base-case model inputs); for example, (Calibrated savings) = (Predicted savings) (Base-case actual bills)/(Base-case predicted bills). Kissock, and J. Neymark cooled office distribution system require a detailed balance! 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